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Quiz: Fullscreen Mode AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Complete Study Notes for Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry SECTION 16.1: Understanding Organic Chemistry Basics What Are Organic Compounds? Organic compounds are special chemicals that contain the element carbon . You can find them everywhere in your daily life! The food you eat (like bread, rice, and meat), your hair, plastic bottles, soap, and even medicines are all made from organic compounds. There are two types of organic compounds: Natural organic compounds - These come from nature, like the proteins in your hair or the sugar in fruits Synthetic organic compounds - These are man-made in factories, like plastics, detergents, and modern medicines Important Note: Not ALL compounds with carbon are organic! Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) contain carbon but are NOT organic compounds. Wha...

Quiz:   Fullscreen Mode Quiz 2: Fullscreen Mode Chemistry Energy Changes Or Chemical Energetics 🌡️ CHEMISTRY: ENERGY CHANGES 1. Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions Exothermic: Reaction that releases heat to surroundings → Temperature RISES → ΔH is NEGATIVE (ΔH Endothermic: Reaction that absorbs heat from surroundings → Temperature FALLS → ΔH is POSITIVE (ΔH > 0) Type Heat Flow Temperature ΔH Sign Examples Exothermic OUT ↗ RISES ↑ NEGATIVE (−) Combustion, respiration, neutralization Endothermic IN ↘ FALLS ↓ POSITIVE (+) Photosynthesis, thermal decomposition 2. Enthalpy Change (ΔH) Enthalpy Change (ΔH): Transfer of thermal energy during a reaction, measured in kilojoules (kJ) Main Formula: ΔH = Total energy of products − Total energy of reactants Example 1 (Exothermic): Fe(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → FeSO₄(aq) + Cu(s) ΔH = −150 kJ (negative = heat released) Example 2 (...

Quiz 1:   Fullscreen Mode Other Quiz 🧪 METALS & REACTIVITY SERIES: Complete Theory & Formulas 🔬 I. FUNDAMENTAL THEORIES OF METALS 1.1 Electronic Theory of Metallic Bonding Sea of Electrons Model: Metals consist of a lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a "sea" of delocalized electrons. This explains conductivity, malleability, and ductility. Metal Atom → Metal Ion⁺ + e⁻ M(s) → M⁺(aq) + e⁻ (general form) 1.2 Density Theory & Formula Density is a fundamental physical property that measures mass per unit volume. Density = Mass ÷ Volume ρ = m/V (g/cm³ or kg/m³) High Density Examples Gold: 19.3 g/cm³ Lead: 11.4 g/cm³ Copper: 8.9 g/cm³ ...

Quiz Other Quiz Using Moles - Complete Theory & Formulas Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry - Grade 9 1. The Mole Concept - Core Theory Definition of a Mole A mole is the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions) as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 . Avogadro's Constant N A = 6.022 × 10 23 mol -1 This means 1 mole of any substance contains 6.022 × 10 23 particles Key Principle: One mole of any substance contains the same number of particles, but the mass depends on the type of particle. 2. Fundamental Formulas 2.1 Mole-Mass Relationship Number of moles (n) = Mass (m) ÷ Molar mass (M) n = m/M Mass (g...

Quiz 1:   Fullscreen Mode Chemistry: Bonding, Reaction Rates, and Equilibrium Complete Chemistry Theory: Bonding, Reaction Rates, and Equilibrium Section 1: Ionic and Covalent Bonding Atomic Structure Atoms consist of three fundamental particles: Protons : Positively charged particles in the nucleus Neutrons : Neutral particles in the nucleus Electrons : Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus Nucleus Electron Orbits Ion Formation Cation Formation: Atom → Cation + e⁻ Anion Formation: Atom + e⁻ → Anion Na⁺ Cation + Cl⁻ Anion ...